Articles – One More Tree Foundation

Where does the soil in your garden come from – the story of soil from rock to fertile ground

bartoszbuczkowski — Tue, 31 Mar 2026 15:54:24 +0000

History lies beneath our feet

When we reach down and pick up a handful of soil from the garden, we are holding something that took thousands, and sometimes millions, of years to form. It is not simply “dirt”. It is a complex, multi-layered structure in which the history of climate, vegetation, animals and geological processes is recorded: everything that happened in this place long before any of us arrived. Soil is one of the most underappreciated natural resources on Earth, more complex than water, harder to restore than a forest, and absolutely essential to life as we know it.

Most of us treat soil as a backdrop. Something to walk on, to plant things in, and to fertilise from time to time. Yet one centimetre of fertile soil takes hundreds of years to form. Its loss, through erosion, paving over or agricultural degradation, is a process that is practically irreversible on a human timescale. Understanding where soil comes from and what creates it changes the way we look at it, and perhaps the way we treat it.

Everything begins with rock

At the foundation of every soil lies the parent rock. It might be granite, sandstone, limestone, shale or loess, depending on the geology of a given place. This rock is the starting point, but in itself it is not yet soil. For it to become something capable of sustaining life, it must pass through a long process of weathering: breaking down into ever finer particles under the influence of water, frost, temperature and chemistry.

Mechanical weathering is the effect of physical forces that break up rock without altering its chemical composition. Water seeps into cracks in the rock, freezes and expands, splitting the rock from within. Daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations cause minerals to alternately expand and contract, eventually leading to their disintegration. Wind carries grains of sand that abrade the rock surface like sandpaper. This is slow, unrelenting work by the elements, whose effects are measured in millennia.

Chemical weathering occurs in parallel. Rainwater, mildly acidified by carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, reacts with the mineral components of the rock, altering their structure and leaching out certain elements. Organic acids produced by plants and microorganisms accelerate this process. In this way, clay minerals and other compounds form from the parent rock, and these will later become the foundation of soil structure.

When life enters the picture

The mineral material alone, however finely broken down, is not yet soil in the ecological sense of the word. The pivotal moment comes when the first biological colonisers appear: organisms capable of living in an almost lifeless environment and beginning to transform it.

The pioneers are usually lichens and mosses. Lichens, being a symbiotic combination of fungi and algae, can establish themselves directly on bare rock, secreting acids that accelerate its chemical weathering. When a lichen dies, it leaves behind the first, microscopic layer of organic matter. On this, moss can take hold, retaining more water, creating a more humid environment and adding another portion of organic material when it dies. Layer by layer, over decades and centuries, primary soil builds up in this way.

In time, higher plants appear, and with them an entire soil ecosystem: bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, earthworms, millipedes, mites and dozens of other groups of organisms. Each participant processes organic matter, mineralises nutrients, creates soil structure and influences its properties. The earthworm, pulling leaves deep into the soil and excreting digested matter, is literally a builder of soil. A single earthworm processes several grams of soil per year, and the earthworm population in one hectare of meadow can weigh more than a herd of cattle grazing on the same area.

Humus – the heart of fertile soil

The key component of fertile soil is humus, also called organic matter. It is a dark, spongy substance formed by the decomposition of dead plant and animal material by microorganisms. Humus is not the same as compost: it is more thoroughly processed, more chemically stable and far more durable. It can persist in the soil for hundreds, even thousands, of years.

The importance of humus to soil is hard to overstate. First, it is a reservoir of nutrients: nitrogen compounds, phosphorus, potassium and trace elements that plants can draw on gradually, as needed. Second, it improves soil structure: it makes clay less compacted and more permeable, and helps sand retain water. Third, humus is one of the most important long-term stores of carbon. The soils of the world contain more carbon than the atmosphere and all terrestrial vegetation combined. The degradation of humus-rich soils releases this carbon back into the atmosphere, which is one of the underappreciated mechanisms driving climate change.

Building humus is a slow process requiring specific conditions: regular input of organic matter, adequate moisture, appropriate temperature and a rich biological community. Destroying it takes considerably less time. Intensive tillage, monoculture farming, overuse of synthetic fertilisers and removal of leaf litter: each of these practices accelerates the breakdown of humus and the degradation of soil.

Soil profiles – a vertical cross-section through history

If we were to cut through the soil vertically and examine the cross-section, we would see distinct layers, known as soil horizons. Each layer has a different colour, texture and composition, and together they form what is called a soil profile: a record unique to each place, encoding the history of the processes that occurred there.

The uppermost layer, just at or below the surface, is the humus horizon. It is the darkest, biologically richest and most fertile. It is precisely this layer that determines the productivity of the soil, and it is precisely this layer that is the thinnest and most vulnerable to degradation. Beneath it lies the eluviation horizon, where water carrying mineral components leaves characteristic traces. Deeper still lie the mineral accumulation horizons and, finally, the parent rock from which everything began.

Reading a soil profile is like reading an ice core or the growth rings of a tree. Each layer says something about the conditions that prevailed in the past. Geologists, soil scientists and archaeologists can extract from such a profile information about ancient climates, vegetation and even human activity going back thousands of years.

Polish soils – a record of glaciations and winds

Polish soils have their own history, deeply marked by the last glaciations. The glacier that covered much of the country several tens of thousands of years ago left behind specific materials: boulder clays, glaciofluvial sands and gravels. When the glacier retreated, vast, vegetation-free plains were exposed, across which the wind scattered fine loess dust. It settled in layers across the south of the country, forming the basis for some of the most fertile soils in Poland: the chernozems and loess alluvial soils of the Lublin Upland and Lesser Poland.

In the north of the country, sandy soils and podzols dominate: less fertile, more acidic, characteristic of dune areas and outwash plains. In river valleys, alluvial soils formed: young, regularly replenished by river floods, and the foundation of Polish riverside agriculture for millennia. In hollows where water accumulated and stagnated, peat and bog soils developed: stores of carbon and valuable habitats, today largely drained and degraded in Poland.

This diversity of soils is both a richness and a challenge. Different soil types require different agricultural and forestry practices, different tree and plant species, and different conservation strategies. A one-size-fits-all approach to such a varied resource is one of the mistakes whose consequences we feel most acutely in the context of Polish soil degradation.

Forest soil versus urban soil

Not all soil is equal, and the difference between the soil in an old forest and soil in a city is striking. Forest soil is a structure shaped by millions of years of evolution: rich in humus, full of biological life, aerated by roots and the tunnels of organisms, moist and permeable. The forest litter, a layer of leaves, twigs and dead wood on the surface, is the soil’s natural protection against erosion, desiccation and extreme temperatures.

Urban soil is often its opposite. Compacted by foot and vehicle traffic, stripped of litter, cut off from natural organic matter, and frequently contaminated with heavy metals and petroleum derivatives. Urban trees grow in such a substrate like pot plants in too small a pot: they can survive, but they do not have the conditions for full development. This is the source of the short lives of urban trees, their susceptibility to disease and the difficulty they have in taking root.

Restoring health to urban soil is one of the most difficult but most important tasks in the context of cities’ green infrastructure. It requires not only the addition of organic matter and a reduction in compaction, but a fundamental change in the design of urban space: one that gives soil and roots room and conditions to function. One More Tree Foundation takes this context into account when planning every planting event in urban spaces, selecting species and locations so that trees have a genuine chance of long-term growth, not just an impressive start.

Soil is not a renewable resource – at least not on our timescale

One centimetre of fertile soil forms, depending on conditions, in anywhere from one hundred to one thousand years. Meanwhile, intensive wind and water erosion, driven by deforestation and poor agricultural practices, can destroy that same layer within a single decade. According to FAO estimates, more than one third of the world’s soils are considered degraded, and the pace of degradation far exceeds the pace of natural regeneration.

This means that soil is a resource we treat as renewable, even though it is not, at least not on a human timescale. The protection of soil should be taken as seriously as the protection of water or air. Practices that degrade it, such as deforestation, excessive tillage, monoculture and paving over land, have consequences whose repair will take generations.

Trees are, in this context, the soil’s key allies. Roots maintain its structure and protect it against erosion. Leaves create litter that nourishes the microbiome. Dead wood and roots build channels for water and air. A forest is not merely a collection of trees: it is a machine for building and protecting soil, operating on principles that humanity is only beginning to fully understand.

A handful of soil, thousands of years

The next time we pick up a handful of soil from the garden, a forest or a nearby park, it is worth pausing for a moment to imagine what is hidden in that seemingly ordinary clump. Minerals from rock that weathered over centuries. Organic remains of plants and animals from dozens of generations. Billions of living organisms, most of them invisible to the naked eye. Traces of a climate that prevailed here thousands of years ago. And a particular arrangement of all these components that makes exactly what grows here grow here, and nothing else.

Soil may be the most underappreciated wonder of nature. It does not dazzle like the ocean, does not impress like mountains, does not move us like an ancient forest. But without it, none of those things would exist. It is the foundation on which all terrestrial life stands: patiently built by nature over millions of years, and asking of us only one thing, that we stop taking it for granted.

Spring tree planting. Why timing matters and how to do it right

bartoszbuczkowski — Wed, 25 Mar 2026 17:08:18 +0000

Spring is the second window, not the only one

In the popular imagination, planting trees is associated with spring. Not entirely accurately – autumn is an equally good moment, and in many cases an even better one. But spring has its own undeniable advantages and its own rhythm, which is worth understanding before we put a spade in the ground. Not every spring day is equally suitable, not every species will respond in the same way to a spring start, and not every soil is at the same point in its awakening. Spring tree planting is more than a gesture towards nature – it is a carefully planned action that either gives a tree an excellent start or condemns it to a struggle for survival from its very first weeks.

Understanding why timing matters so much begins with understanding what happens to a tree immediately after it is placed in the ground. A new tree – regardless of whether it comes from a pot or is a bare-root sapling – must immediately begin to establish contact with the soil. The roots must grow, absorb water and build relationships with soil microorganisms. This requires energy, and energy requires the right conditions: an appropriate soil temperature, availability of water and the absence of extreme weather. Spring provides these conditions – but only within a specific, fairly narrow window of time.

When exactly to plant – the spring window in practice

The spring planting window opens when the soil thaws to an adequate depth and reaches a temperature above approximately five degrees Celsius. Below this threshold, roots are practically inactive – they do not grow, do not absorb water efficiently and do not establish contact with the soil’s microbiota. Planting into soil that is too cold means planting into a dormant, unresponsive substrate, which exposes the young tree to water stress before it has had the chance to take root.

At the same time, the spring window closes relatively quickly. Once a tree begins to push out leaves intensively, all its energy is directed upwards – towards the crown, photosynthesis and shoot growth. This is a poor moment for planting, because the tree has no reserves to simultaneously build a root system and sustain a developing canopy. In practice, this means that for most deciduous species the spring planting window closes the moment buds begin to swell visibly and start to open. Before that – yes. After that – it is decidedly better to wait until autumn.

In Polish climatic conditions this window typically falls around the turn of March and April on the lowlands, and somewhat later in upland and mountain areas. It is narrower than many people think – often lasting only two to four weeks. Spring planting therefore requires readiness: the tree, the tools and the plan should be prepared in advance, not improvised on the first warm weekend.

Bare-root plants versus balled-and-burlapped trees

One of the most important choices in spring planting is the form in which we purchase the tree. Bare-root saplings – without soil around the root system – are cheaper, lighter and easier to transport. But they require planting at a very specific moment: before the tree breaks into growth. Once the buds begin to open, a bare-root sapling loses its spring opportunity. Every day of delay brings greater stress to the plant, whose roots are exposed to air without the ability to absorb water.

Container-grown trees or those with a root ball are considerably more flexible in this respect. The soil around the roots protects them from desiccation and thermal shock, and the entire root system is preserved in continuity. Such trees can be planted throughout most of the growing season, though here too early spring or autumn yields the best results. The main requirement is ensuring adequate watering after planting – the root ball in the container is often drier than it appears, and integrating it with the garden soil takes time and moisture.

The choice of sapling form should be dictated not only by price, but above all by a realistic planting schedule. If we know that planting will take place before the buds begin to swell – bare roots are excellent. If the timing is uncertain or planting is planned for somewhat later – it is worth opting for a balled tree, which allows more time to act.

Soil preparation – the work that determines the first years

The quality of the soil and the way it is prepared have a greater influence on the survival of a young tree than the planting moment itself. The soil should be a living, aerated structure, capable of retaining water but free of waterlogging. The planting hole should be wide enough – at least two to three times wider than the root ball – and not necessarily very deep. Width matters more than depth, because most active roots develop horizontally, close to the surface.

The excavated soil is worth enriching with compost or humus, but in moderation. Soil that is too fertile in the immediate vicinity of the roots means the tree has no incentive to grow further into the surrounding substrate. The roots then remain in a comfortable “pocket” of rich soil rather than exploring the wider space and building the extensive system that will serve the tree for decades. The goal of soil preparation is not to create luxury for the roots, but to encourage expansion.

It is also worth paying attention to what occupied that spot previously. Soil from an old tree of the same species may contain pathogens or allelopathic substances that will impede the new tree’s start. Compacted soil – for example after a construction site – requires mechanical loosening over a large area before it becomes useful for roots at all. These preparations are ideally carried out in autumn or early winter, so that in spring one can act swiftly and at the right moment.

How to plant – step by step without mistakes

The act of planting a tree is one whose errors reveal themselves only after several years – which makes them particularly treacherous. The most common and most serious mistake is planting too deep. The point where the trunk transitions into the roots – the so-called root collar – should sit at or just a few centimetres above the soil surface. Covering the root collar with soil leads to bark rot and the gradual decline of the tree, which may look healthy for several seasons before suddenly beginning to die.

Equally important is avoiding air pockets around the root ball. The roots must have direct contact with the soil, because only then can they absorb water and establish relationships with microorganisms. When backfilling the hole, it therefore helps to firm the soil in layers and water generously – water helps the soil fill every gap around the roots. The first watering after planting should be very abundant, regardless of how moist the soil was before planting.

Staking – propping a young tree with a post – is a topic that divides horticultural opinion. Research indicates that trees which sway slightly in the wind build a stable root system more quickly than those held rigidly in place. If staking is necessary due to wind or location, it should be low and loose – the root system must have freedom of movement, even if the trunk is lightly stabilised. Firm, high staking with a tight tie is a mistake all too often inflicted on urban trees.

The first weeks after planting – a critical time

Spring can be deceptive. A few warm, sunny days in March or April can make planting seem like a simple task with an automatically happy outcome. In reality, the first four to eight weeks after planting are the time of greatest stress and greatest vulnerability for a young tree. The root system is not yet well established, the canopy is beginning to draw water and minerals, and the soil can dry out rapidly during spring droughts, which in Poland are becoming increasingly frequent.

Regular watering during this period is an absolute necessity, even if the tree belongs to a species considered drought-tolerant. Drought tolerance applies to trees with a well-developed root system, not to saplings in their first season after planting. As a rough guide: a newly planted tree should receive between ten and several dozen litres of water every few days during dry spells, while in rainy weeks regular monitoring of the soil condition is sufficient. Mulching – laying bark, straw or another organic material around the base of the trunk – greatly helps to retain moisture and simultaneously protects the roots from overheating.

The experience gathered by One More Tree Foundation across dozens of planting events confirms that it is the care after planting – not the planting moment itself – that determines whether a tree looks healthy after a year or needs to be replaced. Planting is not the end of the process; it is its beginning.

Which species to plant in spring and which prefer autumn

Not all trees respond in the same way to spring planting. Deciduous trees from hardy, fast-growing species – birches, poplars, willows, alders – do excellently with a spring start, because they build new roots quickly and tolerate temporary water stress. Slower-growing species that require better stabilisation before their first season – oaks, beeches, limes, maples – can also be planted in spring, but they demand more attention and more regular watering.

Conifers are a separate category. Most coniferous species – spruces, firs, Douglas firs – do better with autumn planting, when they can take root before winter without the stress caused by summer drought. Pines and larches are more flexible and tolerate a spring sapling provided the site is not dry and sandy. Yews, monkey puzzles and thujas almost invariably prefer autumn. When it comes to tree species intended as a permanent feature of the landscape – rather than a quick green infill – matching the timing to the species is an investment that pays dividends over the next several decades.

Spring planting as an act of mindfulness – and an invitation to act

Planting a tree in spring has a dimension that goes beyond gardening and ecology. It is an act of synchronisation with the rhythm of nature – a choice of the moment when the soil and the plant are ready to work together. It requires observation: has the soil already thawed, are the buds still dormant, have the rains been sufficient? It requires patience: waiting for the right moment rather than acting at the first hint of warmth. And it requires continuity: watering, observing, responding.

These same principles – mindfulness, patience and long-term thinking – lie at the heart of every action carried out by One More Tree Foundation. For years we have been organising spring planting events in collaboration with local communities, local authorities and companies that want to act for the environment in a real and measurable way. Every event is preceded by an analysis of the site, selection of species suited to the local ecosystem and a post-planting care plan. Because we know that a tree is not a one-off gesture – it is a long-term commitment that begins with one decision made at the right moment in spring.

We also organise spring planting events as team-building experiences for companies – in the form of employee volunteering that combines genuine ecological action with relationship building within the team. It is one of the most authentic CSR activities a company can undertake: employees leave the office, plant trees side by side, talk differently than they would at a desk, and return with the sense that on that day they did something that will outlast them. Not as an entry in a sustainability report, but as a tree growing in a specific place – one that in a decade or two will provide shade and shelter for wild species.

If you would like to plant trees with your team this spring, with your local community, or simply as a private individual who knows that this moment is right now – get in touch with us. We will help you choose the location, the species and the timing, and we will make sure that every tree planted gets the best possible start. Spring does not last long. Trees last considerably longer.

Every tree begins with one right day

Spring gives us a short, precious window. The soil is ready, the tree is still dormant but slowly waking to life. It is precisely this moment – not too early, not too late – that is the best starting point for a new tree. Understanding what is happening at this moment in the soil, in the roots and in the entire ecosystem transforms planting from a mechanical activity into conscious participation in a process that will continue long after a single spring. Trees planted today with full knowledge and commitment will provide shade, oxygen and shelter when we have long since forgotten what the day of their planting looked like.

Phenology – the art of reading nature’s own calendar

bartoszbuczkowski — Sat, 21 Mar 2026 14:00:00 +0000

What phenology is and why it matters

Nature never operates in a vacuum. Every phenomenon – the first flowering of hazel, the return of swallows from Africa, the nocturnal concerts of frogs on waterlogged meadows – is written into the rhythm of the year with a precision no clock can match better than the ecosystem itself. This rhythm is the subject of phenology: the science that studies seasonal biological phenomena and their dependence on environmental conditions, primarily temperature, sunlight and rainfall. Although the word sounds technical, phenology is in essence the art of attentive observation – and one of the oldest ways in which humans have tried to understand the world around them.

Phenology as a scientific discipline has its roots in the eighteenth century, when naturalists began systematically recording the dates of plant flowering, bird arrivals and the first appearances of insects. But the practical dimension of this knowledge was present much earlier – farmers for centuries observed the flowering of blackthorn as a signal to sow grain, while fishermen planned their catches according to bird migrations. Nature was a calendar, and its phenomena were its hands.

Today phenology is gaining new and very practical significance. In the era of climate change, seasonal natural events are shifting in time, drifting apart from one another and destabilising relationships between species that have been synchronised for thousands of years. Observing phenology is therefore not merely the pleasure of a nature enthusiast – it is one of the most important ways of monitoring the health of ecosystems.

How nature measures time

No organism has a built-in calendar, but every organism has mechanisms that allow it to respond to signals from its environment. For most plants and animals, three parameters are crucial: temperature, day length and the availability of food resources. The combination of these factors determines when a tree will break its buds, when an insect will emerge from its pupa, and when a bird will decide to embark on a journey of several thousand kilometres.

Plants make use of what is called vernalisation – a process in which a certain dose of winter cold is a necessary precondition for subsequent flowering. Without the appropriate biological “thawing”, the biological clock does not start, and the plant does not move into its generative phase. This is a protective mechanism that prevents a warm spell in the middle of winter from triggering premature growth. Only the combination of winter and spring – cold followed by warmth – gives the correct starting signal.

Animals use similar mechanisms, but with greater flexibility. Migratory birds respond primarily to day length, because this is the most predictable astronomical signal. Insects, by contrast, are strongly dependent on temperature – which is why their appearances are more variable and harder to predict. It is precisely insects, including essential pollinators, that have become one of the most visible barometers of phenological change.

Phenophases – the language of nature that can be learned

Phenologists use the concept of phenophases: characteristic, recurring stages in the life cycle of organisms. For trees, these include bud break, flowering, leaf development, autumn colour change and leaf fall. For birds – arrival, nest building, hatching of chicks and, finally, departure. Each phenophase is a clear, measurable moment in time that can be noted and compared across years.

Observing phenophases requires no specialist equipment or biological training. It does, however, require regularity and attentiveness. It is enough to note when the cherry tree in a nearby garden flowered this year, or when the cuckoo was heard for the first time in the season. When such observations are collected over many years, they form data series that reveal more about the local climate than any report from a meteorological station.

In Poland, phenology is systematically observed by the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management, which operates a network of phenological stations. Data from these stations show, among other things, that over the past few decades spring in Poland has advanced – the first phenological events now occur on average several to over ten days earlier than in the mid-twentieth century. This is a change that is visible to the naked eye, if one knows what to look for.

Desynchronisation – when nature’s calendar begins to fall apart

One of the most troubling phenomena observed by phenologists is desynchronisation – the loss of synchrony between events that for thousands of years were closely linked. A classic example is the relationship between tree flowering and the activity of pollinating insects, or between the hatching of insect larvae and the peak feeding period of nesting birds.

Imagine a great tit that raises its brood at a specific time so that the chicks have access to the maximum number of oak caterpillars. This timing was precisely calibrated over hundreds of generations to coincide with the peak appearance of larvae on oak leaves. When spring advances, oaks leaf out earlier, caterpillars appear earlier – but the birds, responding mainly to day length, do not advance their breeding at the same pace. The result is a mismatch: the chicks hatch when the peak of larvae has already passed. For the birds, this means poorer survival of offspring.

There are dozens of such relationships in an ecosystem. Flowers and their pollinators, predators and prey, parasites and hosts – every pair evolutionarily tuned to a shared rhythm. Climate change is writing new music, but not all species are able to retune at the same pace. Desynchronisation is one of the mechanisms through which climate change destabilises biodiversity even in places where the temperature itself does not yet seem dramatically high.

Trees as phenological archives

Trees are exceptional participants in the phenological calendar – and at the same time its archivists. Dendrochronology, the analysis of annual growth rings, allows scientists to read from a tree trunk the history of weather conditions spanning dozens or even hundreds of years. Wide rings indicate good growing seasons; narrow ones mark years that were cold, dry or burdened by pests.

The study of tree rings is one of the most important climate proxies available to scientists. Thanks to them, we can compare the current pace of change with the natural climate fluctuations that preceded the industrial era. The results of these studies are unambiguous: the current rate of change has no precedent over at least the past thousand years. Trees remember this – we have their testimony written in their wood.

The phenophases of trees are also particularly well documented, because trees are a permanent feature of the landscape, easy to observe and unable to move from one place to another. Phenological observation networks are based largely on trees – poplars, birches, ashes, horse chestnuts – whose annual cycle is easy to follow and important for assessing the health of the local ecosystem.

Phenology in the city: a different rhythm, different challenges

The city is a distinct phenological world. The so-called urban heat island means that temperatures in the centres of large conurbations are on average a few degrees higher than in the surrounding countryside. The result is an accelerated phenological rhythm: trees leaf out earlier, flower earlier, and autumn arrives later than beyond the city limits.

This fascinating phenomenon has its darker sides, however. Urban trees that flower earlier are more exposed to damage caused by late frosts, which in Poland can occur even in May. Earlier leafing also means a longer period of exposure to urban drought, which is increasingly problematic in the warmer months. Furthermore, urban insects may not be able to keep pace with the accelerated rhythm of plants, disrupting local ecological networks.

Observing urban phenology also allows the detection of invasive species that adapt to urban conditions better than native plants. Small balsam, Canadian goldenrod and tree of heaven can exploit the warm microclimate of cities, displacing native flora and disrupting local phenophases. Tracking when and how quickly these species flower is an important element of ecological monitoring of urban greenery.

Citizen phenology – science in which everyone can take part

Phenology is one of those disciplines in which data gathered by non-professionals have genuine scientific value. A single observer says little. Thousands of observers from across the country create a mosaic that reveals regional differences and long-term trends. This is why citizen science projects focused on phenology are actively supported by scientific institutions around the world.

In Poland, several initiatives exist which anyone can join as an observer. They require regular recording of basic phenomena: the dates of first flowering of selected plants, the first appearances of specific insects or birds. The data are sent to a central database, where scientists analyse them alongside other observations. Every record has value, because every place has its own slightly different microclimate and ecosystem.

Observing phenology also changes a person’s perspective on nature. When we know what to look for and when, a forest ceases to be a uniform backdrop and becomes a vibrating rhythm of structures and relationships. This is the shift that One More Tree Foundation seeks in its educational programmes – a move from passively admiring nature to actively understanding it. In this sense, phenology is a perfect tool: concrete, requiring regularity, yet accessible to everyone.

Phenological change as an indicator of climate crisis

Phenological data from recent decades constitute one of the most compelling pieces of evidence for the reality and pace of climate change. In Europe, the flowering of spring plants has advanced by an average of several days per decade. Bird migrations are changing their routes and timing. Alpine plant species are shifting to ever-higher elevations in search of appropriate temperatures. Coral reefs are experiencing bleaching episodes at increasingly shorter intervals.

These changes are not abstract statistics – they are visible in nature here and now, for anyone who knows what to look for. The advancement of spring by two weeks over half a century is an enormous change from the perspective of evolution, which operates on a timescale of thousands of generations. Ecosystems do not have time to adapt – which is why, instead of evolution, we see stress, extinction and species reshuffling.

In this context, trees are a particularly important indicator. Long-lived, rooted in one place, unable to flee from change – they are literally on the front line. At the same time, judging by phenological data, they respond to climate change more visibly than many other organisms. Monitoring their cycles is therefore monitoring the condition of the entire system.

What we can do with this knowledge

Phenological awareness is not merely academic. It translates into very concrete actions – both at the individual and institutional level. In gardens and parks, species whose phenophases are spread out over time can be planted, ensuring a continuous supply of food for insects throughout the entire season. In cities, greenery can be planned so that its rhythm is as close to the natural one as possible, rather than being purely aesthetically appealing.

At the level of environmental policy, phenological data should be treated as a key indicator in environmental impact assessments. Road investments, land drainage schemes, deforestation – each of these interventions alters local phenophases and can destabilise ecological relationships that are not visible at first glance. Measuring these changes is a prerequisite for conscious ecosystem management.

Initiatives such as One More Tree Foundation, through tree planting and environmental education, indirectly support the phenological resilience of ecosystems. Every tree planted is another participant in the phenological calendar, another element of the network, another anchor for species dependent on specific plants. Restoring trees means restoring rhythm – in a very literal sense.

Phenology teaches humility

Perhaps the most important lesson of phenology is a lesson in humility. Nature operates according to its own rules, worked out over millions of years of evolution, and no human plan or timetable can replace that internal logic. We can observe it, understand it and – to some extent – protect it. But we cannot replace it.

When we watch hazel buds breaking in February, or hear the first song of a starling in March, we are participating in a process that has been going on far longer than any human institution. Phenology reminds us that we are part of this network, not its operators. And the attentiveness with which we approach the seasonal phenomena of nature is a measure of how well we understand our place within it.

The first signs of the coming spring. How plants prepare to come back to life.

bartoszbuczkowski — Tue, 10 Mar 2026 16:18:11 +0000

Spring plants: how buds, sap and the “start of the season” in trees work

Spring in nature does not begin with one day when everything suddenly turns green. It is a process that starts gradually, often while nights are still cold and there is still winter moisture lingering in the shade. For trees and shrubs, this is a key moment, because this is when they activate mechanisms that determine the entire growing season. Buds swell, water with dissolved nutrients begins to circulate in tissues, and the plant “switches” from survival mode to intensive work mode.

Understanding what happens in buds and why trees in spring literally begin to “pump life” allows us to look at spring green landscapes differently. It is also a good starting point for consciously caring for greenery in cities, gardens and forests, because spring is for plants a period of greatest sensitivity and, at the same time, greatest potential.

Buds: small capsules of the future

Buds of trees and shrubs are among the most remarkable plant structures. From the outside they look inconspicuous, but inside they contain a ready plan for the future. Depending on the species, they may contain leaf, shoot, flower primordia, or a mixture of these elements. That is why some trees bloom before they put out leaves, while others only bloom when they are already green.

A bud is also a shelter. In winter it protects delicate tissues from frost, wind and drying out. Bud scales, often coated with resin or hairs, act as a natural shield. When temperatures rise in spring, the plant activates processes that cause buds to swell. In practice, this is the result of water uptake, increased pressure in cells and intensified metabolic changes. The bud prepares to “open”, that is, to release leaves and new shoots.

What triggers the start of the season: temperature and day length

Plants do not follow the calendar. Their “start of the season” depends on environmental signals, primarily temperature and day length. Many trees first need a period of winter cold to complete the full dormancy cycle. Only then does spring warming become a signal to grow. You could say that plants have to “get through winter” so they do not start too early.

In practice, changes in day length are also important. It is one of the most stable signals in nature because it does not depend on the weather in a given year. For some species, the increasing amount of daylight is the signal that the season can begin. Thanks to this, trees and shrubs in a sense “protect themselves” from the risk that a single warm winter week would trigger growth that would later be destroyed by frost.

What should you pay attention to at the beginning of spring?

The beginning of spring is a great time to take a closer look at how nature “starts up”. It is worth observing not only the first green leaves, but also subtle changes that appear earlier and say a lot about the condition of plants and the weather in a given year.

The most important things to pay attention to:

Buds of trees and shrubs – whether they are still tight or already swelling and beginning to open, and which species do it the fastest.

First flowering – when the first flowers appear, for example on hazel, willow or forest-floor plants, and whether flowering is unusually accelerated.

“Rising sap” – signs of an intense start of the season, for example higher moisture at bark damage in some species, as well as the general impression that plants begin to change quickly from day to day.

Changes in bark and trunks – emerging signs of activity (e.g. woodpeckers), new cracks after winter, or places where the plant is weakened.

First leaves – which species develop leaves the fastest, whether leaves look healthy, whether there is frost damage.

Soil moisture – whether the ground is still wet after winter or already starting to dry out, which is becoming more frequent in recent years.

Presence of insects – the first bees, bumblebees or flies often appear earlier than expected, especially on warmer days.

Such observation does not require specialist knowledge, but it helps to better understand nature and notice how strongly spring depends on weather and local conditions. It is also a good way to build attentiveness and a relationship with nature, even in a city.

Sap in trees: what does it actually mean

In spring, people often say that “the sap has started flowing”. This popular phrase describes the process of increased transport of water and nutrients in a plant. Trees and shrubs have a vascular system that works like a transport network. Water and minerals taken up by roots travel up the trunk and branches, while substances produced in leaves, such as sugars, are distributed to growth and storage areas.

At the beginning of the season, trees use energy stored in the previous year. Tissues and roots store sugar reserves that allow growth to begin before leaves start producing energy through photosynthesis. That is why trees can release buds and flowers even before full leaf development. Spring start does not come “from nowhere”. It is the result of very specific resource management that the plant builds up throughout the previous season.

Why birches and maples “cry” in spring

Some trees, especially birches and maples, are known for the fact that in spring their sap can be noticed even with the naked eye. When the trunk is damaged and the temperature is right, the tree can literally “release” sap. This phenomenon results from pressure differences in tissues and active water uptake by roots.

In practice, it is a very good example of how intensely a plant works in spring. The tree pumps water and nutrients, preparing for leaf and shoot development. It is worth remembering that at this time the plant is particularly sensitive to mechanical damage. Cutting, breaking branches or excessive interference in the structure of the tree can be a greater burden than at other times of the year

Spring is the period of greatest sensitivity for trees

The moment vegetation starts is a time when trees are undergoing intense changes and their resources are directed toward growth. If frost, drought or mechanical damage occurs at this time, the plant may suffer greater losses than in summer. This applies both to trees in forests and to urban greenery.

In cities, a problem can also be overly quick “cleaning” of green spaces. Removing all leaves, branches and dead organic matter deprives the soil of natural protection and limits its moisture. Meanwhile, soil and the root system are crucial for plants, especially at the beginning of the season. The better the condition of the soil, the easier it is for the plant to start and survive the first weeks.

What can we do so we do not disturb plants in spring

The best support for plants in spring is to limit excessive interference. It is worth remembering that nature has its own pace, and our actions, even if well intentioned, can harm it.

In practice, a few simple rules help. Let us not prune trees and shrubs without need during the period of intense sap flow. Let us not “clean” urban greenery down to zero, leaving at least some leaves and natural litter. If we have a garden or a balcony, let us choose native and long-flowering plants that will support insects from the very first warm days. We can also take care of water retention, because spring is increasingly dry and plants at the start of the season need moisture.

Spring season start as a signal of climate change

More and more often we observe that spring arrives earlier than it used to. Buds develop faster and flowering shifts in time. For plants this can be risky, because an early start increases the likelihood that young leaves and flowers will be damaged by late frosts. This is one of many phenomena that show that climate affects not only temperature, but the entire seasonality of ecosystems.

So spring is not only a beautiful moment in the year. It is also an indicator of changes that take place in nature. By observing buds, flowering and the pace of greening, we can literally see how nature reacts to environmental conditions.

Spring happens quietly, but it has enormous power

Spring buds, rising sap and the start of the season in trees are processes that happen without noise, but have enormous significance. This is the moment when plants “set” the whole year, using resources gathered earlier and responding to signals from the surroundings. Understanding these mechanisms helps us see spring not only as a change in weather, but as a precisely planned biological process.

If we want to support nature, let us start with attentiveness. Let us observe buds, leaves and the first flowers, but also remember that spring is a sensitive time. The less we disturb plants in their natural start, the better for the entire ecosystem in which we live.

Digital Carbon Footprint – A New Challenge for Climate and Forest Protection

michalinadrozdz — Fri, 27 Feb 2026 17:57:17 +0000

Digitalisation is transforming the way we work, learn and communicate. Videoconferencing replaces business travel, documents function in the cloud, and social campaigns are conducted online. At the same time, the phenomenon known as the digital carbon footprint is growing – greenhouse gas emissions generated by the production, powering and cooling of IT infrastructure and electronic devices.

In the context of climate protection, attention is increasingly focused not only on transport or energy, but also on the information and communication technology sector. It is estimated that global ICT-related emissions may rise dynamically in the coming years with the development of artificial intelligence, video streaming and cloud data processing. This is a challenge that requires combining technological innovation with real environmental action, including the protection and restoration of forest ecosystems.

Data Centres, Energy and Growing Resource Demand

Every internet search, every email and every video playback activates processes in data centres. These facilities consume vast amounts of electricity, not only to power servers but also to cool them. The PUE (Power Usage Effectiveness) indicator allows the assessment of the energy efficiency of such facilities, yet even the most efficient data centres require stable electricity supplies.

If this energy comes from fossil fuels, users’ digital activity translates directly into CO₂ emissions. In many countries, operators invest in renewable energy sources, yet global demand for data is growing faster than the pace of energy system decarbonisation.

An additional challenge is water consumption for cooling IT infrastructure. In drought-prone regions, building large data centres can intensify pressure on local natural resources. Responsible digital infrastructure planning should consider both emissions and impacts on biodiversity and water management.

Electronic Equipment and Impact on Ecosystems

Smartphones, laptops, routers and servers are made from raw materials such as lithium, cobalt, copper and rare earth metals. Their extraction is associated with landscape disruption, soil degradation and often deforestation. The life cycle of electronic devices is relatively short, and the largest carbon footprint is generated at the production stage.

Extending device lifespans, ensuring repairability and recycling e-waste are key elements in reducing environmental pressure. In this context, actions aimed at forest protection and ecosystem restoration become an important component of balancing the negative impacts of digital transformation.

Organisations such as One More Tree Foundation demonstrate that responsibility for climate and nature can go hand in hand with the development of modern technologies. Tree planting, protection of green areas and environmental education are tangible tools supporting emission impact reduction.

Streaming, Cloud and Responsible Technology Use

Streaming in 4K quality, storing thousands of files in the cloud or constant data synchronisation generate continuous energy demand. Although a single user action may seem insignificant, on a global scale billions of operations translate into real resource consumption.

Responsible technology use includes:
– choosing lower video streaming quality when the highest resolution is not necessary,
– regularly deleting unnecessary data from the cloud,
– extending device life cycles,
– using energy providers based on renewable sources.

More and more companies include the digital carbon footprint in ESG reports, analysing emissions across the entire value chain. Combining emission reductions with compensatory actions such as afforestation and green area restoration projects enables the development of more comprehensive climate strategies.

The Role of Environmental Organisations in the Digital Era

Digital transformation does not have to conflict with environmental protection. On the contrary, technologies can support forest monitoring, climate data analysis and social education. However, it is crucial that digital development does not occur at the expense of nature.

One More Tree Foundation engages companies and communities in tree planting and biodiversity enhancement initiatives. In an era of growing energy and resource demand, such initiatives constitute an important element of climate change mitigation. Forest protection is not only about carbon storage but also ecosystem stabilisation, water retention and air quality improvement.

Green IT and Digital Carbon Footprint Reduction Strategies

The concept of Green IT involves designing, implementing and using technology in a way that minimises environmental impact. It includes optimising code and system architecture, selecting energy-efficient hardware and migrating to data centres powered by renewable energy sources.

Companies can reduce their digital carbon footprint through IT energy audits, analysis of Scope 2 and Scope 3 emissions and policies extending device life cycles. Increasingly, the “cloud efficiency first” model is applied, where not only migration to the cloud matters, but real optimisation of computing power consumption.

Green IT does not mean abandoning innovation – it means designing it responsibly and in alignment with climate goals.

Connecting Digital Transformation with Real Nature Support

Emission reduction in the digital sector should go hand in hand with on-the-ground environmental action. Forest protection and restoration, biodiversity enhancement and water retention projects provide natural support for climate strategies of technology companies.

Initiatives such as those implemented by One More Tree Foundation demonstrate that emission compensation can have a local, social and long-term dimension. Linking digital transformation with tree planting and ecosystem restoration enables the creation of coherent ESG strategies where the online world supports real environmental regeneration.

Towards a Sustainable Digital Future

The digital carbon footprint is one of the less visible challenges of our time. It requires both technological innovation and changes in user habits. Energy efficiency of data centres, responsible hardware design and the development of renewable energy sources must go hand in hand with nature protection and restoration.

Sustainable development in the digital era means integrating the online world with real on-the-ground action. Responsible companies, conscious consumers and active environmental organisations can jointly reduce the negative impact of technology on climate and ecosystems. Only in this way can the digital future become an ally of nature rather than another burden.

Spring Without Waste. A 30-Day Plan for Eco-Friendly Office Clean-Up

bartoszbuczkowski — Mon, 23 Feb 2026 14:40:22 +0000

Spring is a natural moment for an organisational “reset”. People are more ready for change, teams have more energy, and the calendar often becomes more predictable than in December or the middle of the holiday season. For HR, an Office Manager or a person responsible for ESG, this is a great opportunity to run green office clean-ups in a practical and lasting way, not as a one-off action. The greatest value of these efforts is not that the organisation will be “greener” for a week, but that after 30 days simple processes will remain in place: fewer single-use items, more efficient segregation, organised e-waste and more conscious purchasing.

The plan is designed so it can be implemented without a revolution, big budgets or shifting responsibility onto employees. The company gains real savings and material for CSR and ESG reporting, and employees see that environmental actions make sense because they make life easier, not because they add obligations.

Rule one. Set the goal, responsibility and a simple schedule

Before you start the “green clean-up”, establish two things: who owns the project and how you will know it has succeeded. The owner can be HR, an Office Manager, a CSR/ESG person or Administration, but the key is having support from someone who truly controls purchasing and office operations. A small team works best: one lead and one supporting person, for example from administration, procurement or IT. If the project is to be sponsored by the COO or CFO, agree at the outset that the goal is not just declarations but concrete results: less waste, fewer single-use purchases, an organised recycling setup and a process that stays.

Also set a simple communication schedule. You do not need a month-long campaign. A start message, a short weekly update and a wrap-up after 30 days is enough. Messages should be specific, without moralising, with simple instructions. Employees do not need to understand the entire ESG strategy. It is enough that they understand what changes in the kitchen, by the printer and where to drop off batteries.

Starting point. A 60-minute audit that shows 80 percent of the issues

The biggest mistake companies make is starting actions without checking whether the system works at all. Run a quick 60-minute audit. Walk through kitchens, open space, meeting rooms, printer areas, common spaces, the office storage room and the place where you keep used equipment. Take photos, note gaps and immediately write down a list of 10–15 improvements.

What should you look at during the audit? Simple facts.

Are segregation bins placed where waste is generated, rather than “where there is space”?
Are the fractions consistent with the five-fraction system and do they have clear labels?
Is there a place for problematic waste: batteries, toners, fluorescent lamps, small equipment?
Does the kitchen generate a lot of single-use items because there are no mugs, cutlery or a dishwasher?
Do printers have default settings that reduce paper use?

The audit outcome is simple: not a report, but a list of actions that can be done within a week. This will be the foundation of your 30-day plan.

Week 1. Waste and segregation as the foundation of the system

We start with the basics, because if segregation does not work, everything else will look like empty marketing. In the first week, the goal is to implement a simple, consistent system across the entire office. Not only in the kitchen, but also in meeting rooms and at workstations.

In practice, this means placing bins and signage so employees do not have to think. The kitchen should have all fractions, because that is where the widest variety of waste is generated. Near printers and in office areas, you most often need paper and mixed waste, but it is also worth including plastics and metals because bottles, packaging and films appear there. Labels must be clear, ideally with simple examples such as: paper means sheets, boxes, envelopes without plastic windows; metals and plastic means bottles, cans, films; bio means coffee grounds, peelings; glass means jars and bottles. The biggest quality improvement usually comes not from education, but from bins being correctly placed and clearly labelled.

At the end of the week, introduce one simple maintenance rule: who is responsible for replacing liners and checking bin status. It does not have to be one person. Ideally, it is part of office operations or the cleaning contract, not “voluntary work” done by employees.

Week 2. E-waste and equipment clean-up as the most neglected topic

The second week is dedicated to e-waste and what usually sits in companies for months. This is an area where it is easy to achieve a real, measurable effect, and at the same time it is important environmentally, because e-waste contains valuable raw materials and should not end up in mixed waste.

This week we run a collection: batteries, rechargeable batteries, cables, chargers, old company phones, mice, keyboards, used toners, fluorescent lamps, small kitchen equipment from the office. It is worth designating one collection point and clearly describing what can be handed in. For employees, it is also helpful to provide two categories: “send for recycling” and “send for reuse”. Some equipment can be donated to organisations or resold if it is functional. The rest should go to a legal collector, and the company should obtain a handover confirmation, which is also useful for reporting.

This is the week when HR and managers see that the project makes sense, because “the clutter disappears” and process order is created. Employees also often appreciate that the company makes it easier to get rid of waste that sits at home for years.

Week 3. Kitchen, single-use items and food waste as the biggest waste generator

The third week focuses on the kitchen, because this is where a huge amount of single-use waste is created: cups, bottles, stirrers, paper towels, food packaging. In many companies, this topic becomes one of “problems you can’t touch” because people have different habits. That is why it is worth approaching it pragmatically and not trying to change everything at once.

First remove barriers. If employees use single-use items because there are no mugs or the dishwasher is always full, this is not an attitude issue but an organisational one. Provide basic reusable tableware, access to washing, a logical place to put dishes, and only then limit single-use items. A good practice is to introduce simple alternatives: water filter jugs or a water dispenser instead of buying multipacks, larger packs of coffee and tea instead of individual sachets, reusable lunch containers.

It is also worth addressing food waste. Set simple rules: a “take me” shelf, date labels, a shared kitchen shopping calendar. It does not have to be perfect, but it usually reduces the number of products thrown away after the weekend.

Week 4. Purchasing, printing and deliveries as the system that remains after the action

The fourth week is about closing the project. If after 30 days the company still buys single-use items and places small orders every day, the project will quickly fade. That is why this week we set simple purchasing and logistics rules.

In office purchasing, the biggest impact comes from three things: reducing the number of deliveries, choosing products in larger packs, and preferring refill solutions, concentrates and reusable products wherever possible. In practice, this may mean switching the cleaning supplies provider to one that offers concentrates and refills, or changing the ordering policy to one consolidated weekly order instead of daily parcels.

The second area is printing. In many companies, a large part of paper disappears because systems are set to single-sided printing by default and documents are printed “just in case”. Changing defaults to double-sided printing, limiting prints in departments that can work digitally, and a simple push to digitise workflows can deliver quick results without reducing work quality.

KPIs and numbers worth collecting in the background

For HR and the director, it is important to be able to show results. You do not need complex systems. Simple indicators are enough, showing

How many kilograms of e-waste were handed over legally,
How much single-use purchasing fell compared to the previous month,
How many reams of paper were used,
How many improvements were implemented

Even the figure “12 process changes in 30 days” sounds better than a general slogan about ecology. Such indicators are also a great starting point for ESG reporting. Even if the company does not report formally, it has hard data that builds credibility.

Internal communication without pressure or moralising

The best communication in such projects is practical communication. Instead of long explanations, what works better is: what is changing, where the new collection point is, what goes into which bin, what we are doing this week. Once a week, it is worth sharing one success, for example the number of batteries collected or a photo of a tidy area.

A good practice is also to have an “ambassador” in each department, but not as an obligation, rather as a supporting role. One person who knows where the instructions are and who to contact if a bin is missing can keep order without tension.

How to maintain the effects of change?

The most important question is: what next?

If the company wants the effects to remain, it needs a minimal maintenance rhythm. Once a month, 10 minutes of review: are bins in place, are labels up to date, does the e-waste point work, have single-use items not returned?

In addition, it is worth including a short note about the segregation system and kitchen rules in onboarding for new employees. This way, there is no need to “raise” people from scratch every six months.

After 30 days, you can also plan another edition, but a smaller one. For example, in summer focus on water and office cooling, and in autumn on purchasing and supply chains. The greatest value of the mission is that it builds an organisational culture in which environmental order is not a project, but a standard.

Spring without waste as a standard, not a one-off action

Green office clean-ups before spring can be one of the simplest and at the same time most visible CSR activities. They deliver quick results, do not require huge budgets and genuinely organise the company. The most important thing is to treat them as a system implementation, not a campaign. If after 30 days an employee knows where to throw waste, where to drop off batteries, and why single-use items disappeared from the kitchen, it means the company has done something lasting.

After the winter period, when the internal environment of the organisation has been properly cleaned up, the company can move on to actions for the external environment: nature and green areas. The next natural step towards making a positive environmental impact is employee volunteer activities. One More Tree Foundation offers such opportunities: joint tree planting, flower meadows, or cleaning green areas across Poland. Such actions are not only a great opportunity for team integration and achieving CSR goals, but also a real impact on nature and our immediate surroundings.

Freezing water, lack of food, greater risk. Why is winter the hardest time for birds?

bartoszbuczkowski — Wed, 18 Feb 2026 14:56:24 +0000

Winter: the toughest period

Winter is the greatest test for birds. As temperatures fall, days grow shorter, and snow and ice limit access to water and food, birds have to fight for every gram of energy. For humans, frost can be an inconvenience; for birds, it is a real threat to life. And although some species migrate to warmer countries, many birds stay in Poland and try to survive the winter in changing conditions.

In winter, energy is the currency

Birds are warm-blooded, which means they must maintain a constant body temperature regardless of the weather. During frosts their bodies work at higher speed. To keep warm, birds burn more energy, which requires a steady supply of calories. The problem is that in winter there is less food, and getting it takes more effort.

That is why birds spend a huge part of the winter day searching for food. Every break, every failed flight for food, every stress and escape from danger is additional energy expenditure that cannot be easily “made up for” in winter.

Freezing water is a bigger problem than it seems

Birds need water not only for drinking. In many species it helps keep their feathers in good condition, and proper feather condition affects thermal insulation. In winter, however, bodies of water freeze and access to open water becomes limited. In cities, birds can use partially unfrozen channels or drains, but in the wild they often have to move longer distances in search of water. This again means an energy cost and a higher risk of encountering a predator.

For waterbirds, freezing water bodies is an additional problem because they lose the ability to feed. If the surface freezes, birds cannot reach the food under the ice, and their natural resting places disappear.

Food hidden under the snow

In summer, the range of food available to birds is enormous. Many species feed on insects, larvae, spiders, small invertebrates, as well as seeds, fruits and green parts of plants. In winter, many food options suddenly disappear. Insects hide in bark, in the soil or in dead wood, plants do not bear fruit, and snow covers everything birds could find on the ground. Even if food can be found somewhere, access to it is often difficult, because it requires digging through a layer of snow or searching places sheltered from frost.

Winter food is also less calorie-dense and less diverse. Birds therefore have to make decisions that are not as important in summer: is it better to stay nearby and look for leftovers in familiar places, or to move farther in hope of better conditions. Every flight costs energy, and in winter saving it is extremely important.

In practice, many species change their diet and feeding behaviour. Birds that are “insect-eaters” in summer switch to plant food in winter, if it is available. Tits, greenfinches, siskins and sparrows more readily look for seeds, and blackbirds or fieldfares can move to places where rowan, wild rose or hawthorn fruits still hang. Woodpeckers more often use larvae hidden in wood, and nuthatches and treecreepers scour tree trunks for small organisms hidden in cracks in the bark.

In cities the situation can paradoxically be easier, but also riskier. On the one hand, birds find more warm microclimates there, and some plants bear fruit longer. On the other hand, the share of human food grows, and it is not always safe for birds. Bread leftovers, salty snacks, food with lots of spices or low-quality vegetable fats can lead to health problems, and when feeding waterbirds, bread is often one of the main causes of poor condition and disease.

In winter, access to food in space also matters. Birds more often approach houses, gardens and roads, because it is easier to find leftovers and vegetation there that is not completely covered by snow. This increases the risk of collisions with cars, strikes against windows, as well as contact with predators. From a bird’s perspective, winter is not only less food, but also a harder and more dangerous “hunt” for every bite.

A shorter day means less time to eat

In winter the day is short, and this matters enormously. Birds have fewer hours to obtain food, and at night the temperature drops, so the body uses more energy to keep warm. This means birds must “fit” their entire energy balance into a very limited time. If during the day they fail to obtain enough food, the night can be critical for them.

This also explains why in winter birds feed so intensively in the morning and before dusk. Every hour is valuable, and weather conditions can suddenly make searching impossible.

Greater risk from predators and stress

In winter predators also fight to survive, which means pressure on birds often increases. When easily available food is scarce, predators hunt more intensively, take risks more often and move closer to areas inhabited by people. Birds that are weakened in winter have to forage longer and spend more time in open spaces, making them easier targets.

The most obvious predators are birds of prey. The sparrowhawk is a typical “feeder hunter” and can take advantage of moments when birds gather in one place. The goshawk hunts larger birds, and in winter conditions may be more active near housing areas. Owls, though less visible, also hunt intensively, especially when rodents are harder to reach.

In addition, there are ground predators. The fox, marten or weasel can hunt birds feeding low to the ground, especially in places where snow limits escape. In cities and on the outskirts of villages, the role of domestic and free-roaming cats also increases; in winter they can be exceptionally effective, especially against weakened individuals. In practice, a bird often takes a risk in winter: it has to come closer to people to find food, but then it encounters predators more often.

Another important factor is stress and being startled. In winter a bird does not have the same energy reserve as in summer. A sudden take-off after being startled is not just a momentary effort. It is lost calories that on a frosty day can determine whether a bird survives the night. That is why seemingly small human behaviours matter so much: walking into thickets, chasing birds for fun, noise, letting dogs run off-leash in forests or meadows.

In practice, the most harmful is a pattern repeated many times. If a bird is startled several times a day, it must constantly interrupt foraging, loses energy on escapes and fails to replenish its reserves. In winter even small disturbances can have consequences greater than we intuitively assume.

Ways to survive

Birds have many mechanisms that increase their chances of survival in winter conditions. Some are behaviours we can observe during a walk, and some are physiological tricks of the body. The most important strategies are:

Building up energy reserves in the form of fat
Many birds increase their body mass before frost arrives and try to “top up” daily to a safe level. Fat is crucial because it provides a lot of energy and helps them survive the night, when there is no possibility of feeding and the temperature drops.
Fluffing up feathers and better thermal insulation
In winter birds often look “puffier” because fluffed feathers trap a layer of air next to the body and act as insulation. This is a simple but very effective way to reduce heat loss.
Choosing sheltered places to roost
At night birds look for places that protect them from wind and moisture. These can be dense shrubs, conifers, the inside of hedges, crevices in buildings, and for some species also tree cavities. Roosting in a good place can reduce energy loss and lower the risk of attack.
Roosting in groups
Some species readily roost close to one another. In a group it is easier to keep warm and detect danger faster. In winter you can observe birds gathering at dusk in specific places, forming distinctive “roosting sites”.
Limiting activity and avoiding unnecessary flights
In winter birds try to conserve energy, so they often choose shorter routes and avoid unnecessary activity. This is one reason why it is so important not to disturb them. Every additional flight means lost calories.
Dietary change and flexibility in choosing food
Many birds switch in winter to a more seed-based and fatty diet, if they have the opportunity. Tits are an example, as they readily use high-calorie food. Birds that hunt insects in summer can in winter search for seeds, buds and fruits left on shrubs.
Using microclimates
In cities birds are more often found in places where it is slightly warmer and where snow does not linger as long. These can be areas near buildings, parks with dense vegetation, waterside areas or sheltered courtyards. Even a difference of one or two degrees matters when the energy balance is on the edge.
Short-term lowering of body temperature at night
In some species there is a phenomenon that can be compared to an “energy-saving mode”. Birds briefly lower their metabolism and body temperature to reduce calorie use at the hardest moment, which is at night.

How can we help wisely, not harmfully

Helping birds in winter makes sense, but only if it is done responsibly. The most important rule is regularity. If we start feeding, we should do it consistently throughout the frost period, because birds get used to the food source.

The best food is good-quality seeds, e.g. sunflower seeds, suitable bird mixes, and unsalted fat in the form of suet balls. Bread should not be given, especially to waterbirds, because it is unhealthy for them and can lead to health problems.

It is also worth helping with water. A shallow birdbath with unfrozen water can be just as valuable in winter as a feeder. Even a small bowl, regularly refilled, can realistically improve birds’ chances of survival in the area.

Winter is hard, but we have an impact

For birds, winter is a fight for energy, water and safety. Freezing water bodies, limited access to food and greater predator pressure make every day a challenge. At the same time, our everyday actions can help or harm. If we feed birds wisely, provide water and avoid unnecessary disturbance, we genuinely support nature in the hardest season.

One More Tree Foundation organises workshops on building bird feeders. In a friendly, inclusive atmosphere, together with young people, adults and seniors, we create shelters for birds that truly increase their chances of surviving the winter.

Mountains, forest or city? How your winter-holiday destination affects the environment

bartoszbuczkowski — Mon, 09 Feb 2026 14:08:57 +0000

For many people, winter holidays are a time to rest, travel and change their daily routine. When choosing a destination, we rarely think about how our decision affects the environment. Yet whether we spend the holidays in the mountains, in a forest or in a city has real consequences for nature, greenhouse-gas emissions and local ecosystems. The point is not to give up rest, but to better understand the consequences of our choices.

Transport as the largest source of carbon footprint

For winter holidays, transport almost always accounts for the largest share of the trip’s overall carbon footprint. The way we travel determines whether our break will be relatively low-emission or whether it will generate significant amounts of carbon dioxide even before we arrive.

A good example is the popular Warsaw–Zakopane route, which is about 400 kilometres one way. Travelling by a passenger car with an internal-combustion engine means average emissions of around 140–160 g CO₂ per kilometre. In practice, this translates into about 55–65 kg CO₂ one way, i.e. 110–130 kg CO₂ per person for a round trip, assuming you travel alone. Even with a full car, the emissions per passenger remain significant.

By comparison, taking the train on the same route generates on average 5–10 times lower emissions. It is estimated that a train journey from Warsaw to Zakopane produces about 10–15 kg CO₂ one way per person, depending on the energy mix and how full the train is. The environmental difference between these two modes of transport is therefore very clear, even if the travel time can be similar.

It is also worth remembering that winter travel often involves worse road conditions. Driving on snow, traffic jams in tourist areas and stops with the engine running further increase fuel use and emissions. In practice, this means that getting to your holiday destination alone can account for as much as 60–80 percent of the total carbon footprint of a short tourist trip, regardless of how eco-friendly you behave once you are there.

Holidays in the mountains: attractions and environmental costs

Winter mountain tourism involves intensive use of natural resources, especially in the context of skiing. One of the most burdensome elements is artificial snowmaking on slopes, which in many regions has become essential to keep the winter season going.

Preparing a slope for skiing requires huge amounts of water. It is estimated that producing one cubic metre of artificial snow takes about 200–500 litres of water, depending on temperature and technology. A medium-sized ski slope can use tens of thousands of cubic metres of water during a single season, which is comparable to the annual water demand of a small town.

Snow production is also inseparably linked to electricity use. Snow cannons, pumping systems, snow groomers and slope lighting often operate around the clock during periods with suitable frost. It is assumed that preparing and maintaining one kilometre of a ski run may require from several dozen to more than one hundred megawatt-hours of energy per season, depending on how intensive snowmaking is and on weather conditions. In regions where energy comes mainly from fossil fuels, this translates into additional CO₂ emissions.

Environmental costs do not end with water and energy. Building and maintaining ski infrastructure means interference in the landscape, tree felling, artificial terrain shaping and constant noise. In winter, wild animals feel this particularly strongly, because it is a period of limited food availability and the need to conserve energy. Intense human presence, light and sounds disrupt their natural behaviour and can reduce their chances of survival.

This does not mean that holidays in the mountains are always a bad choice, but it shows the scale of impact. The larger the resort, the more artificial snow and the more intensive the infrastructure, the higher the environmental cost. Choosing smaller centres, activities that do not require snowmaking or rest outside the peak season can significantly reduce this impact.

Holidays in the forest: close to nature, but not without impact

A forest getaway is often seen as the most ecological form of winter holiday. Indeed, being close to nature and having less infrastructure can mean less environmental pressure, provided we behave responsibly. Winter is a particularly demanding time for forests and their inhabitants. Animals conserve energy, and any additional stress can affect their chances of survival.

Leaving marked trails, making noise, letting dogs run off-leash or feeding wild animals can do more harm than it seems. A forest holiday can be environmentally friendly if we limit ourselves to designated routes, keep quiet and respect nature-protection rules.

Holidays in the city: an underrated alternative

Although it is rarely associated with winter relaxation, a city can be one of the least environmentally burdensome options. Many people can reach a city by public transport or even without needing to travel far. Using existing infrastructure means there is no need to interfere with nature.

City holidays also offer access to museums, cultural events, parks, ice rinks and educational activities. This form of rest shifts pressure from natural ecosystems to spaces already transformed by humans, which on an environmental scale may prove more beneficial.

Mountains, forest and city – a comparison

Each of these options has its advantages and limitations. The mountains offer intensive attractions, but they come with high tourist pressure. The forest provides contact with nature, but requires particular caution and respect for nature-protection rules. The city is often the least invasive environmentally, although not everyone associates it with a holiday. The ultimate impact on the environment depends not only on the destination, but also on the scale of the trip and tourists’ behaviour.

What matters most regardless of location?

Regardless of whether we choose the mountains, the forest or the city, certain factors have a key impact on the environment. Data show that transport accounts on average for 60–80 percent of the carbon footprint of a short tourist trip. For example, travelling by car for 300 kilometres one way can generate about 60–70 kg CO₂ per person, whereas the same distance by train is only a few kilograms.

The length of stay also matters. Short, frequent trips generate proportionally higher emissions than one longer stay in the same place. According to tourism analyses, extending a stay by a few days can reduce emissions per day of rest by as much as 30–40 percent.

The amount of waste generated is also important. A typical tourist produces more rubbish while travelling than at home, mainly due to single-use packaging and takeaway food. Conscious meal planning and using reusable products can significantly reduce this problem.

Choosing a holiday destination with the environment in mind

When choosing where to go, it is worth pausing for a moment and asking yourself a few simple questions that help assess the real environmental impact of the trip:

Do we really need to travel far, or is there an attractive option closer to home?
How can we get there, and is travel by train or public transport possible?
Are we planning one longer stay instead of several short trips?
What does the infrastructure in the chosen place look like, and does it rely mainly on existing resources?
Will the way we spend time require significant interference with the environment, or is it based on simple activities?
Can we rest more calmly, without excessive noise and pressure on our surroundings?

The answers to these questions do not have to lead to perfect solutions, but they help us consciously choose a holiday option that is as little burdensome for the environment as possible, while still allowing us to truly rest.

A conscious choice instead of a perfect solution

There is no single perfect, completely “zero-impact” way to spend the holidays. Every trip has some environmental impact. What matters, however, is that this impact is conscious and as small as possible. The choice of destination, the way we travel and our behaviour on site all matter.

Winter holidays can be a time of rest not only for us, but also for nature, if we approach them with greater mindfulness and responsibility.

Ecology of temperature: how street microclimates affect people and nature in cities

michalinadrozdz — Fri, 06 Feb 2026 13:13:40 +0000

In cities, temperature is not distributed evenly. A difference of just a few degrees between neighboring streets can determine quality of life, residents’ health, and the survival of local organisms. This phenomenon is not accidental – it results from the microclimate, meaning local thermal conditions shaped by buildings, materials, greenery, and the way space is used. Today, the ecology of temperature has become one of the key areas of thinking about urban adaptation to climate change.

What is a street microclimate and how does it form

A street microclimate is a set of local environmental conditions, including air temperature, humidity, sunlight exposure, and air flow. In cities, it is shaped primarily by artificial surfaces such as asphalt, concrete, glass, and metal. These materials heat up faster than soil or vegetation and release heat even long after sunset.

Urban layout is equally important. Narrow streets surrounded by tall buildings limit air circulation and promote heat accumulation. The lack of greenery intensifies this effect, leading to the formation of local heat islands that may differ in temperature by several degrees from nearby, greener areas.

Urban heat islands as an ecological problem

The phenomenon of the urban heat island is most often analyzed in the context of human comfort, but it also has significant ecological consequences. Elevated temperatures affect the rate of water evaporation from soil, increase plant water stress, and alter the living conditions of small organisms.

High temperatures promote the development of pathogens and pests that cope better in warmer environments. At the same time, many native species adapted to cooler and more humid conditions gradually disappear from the most overheated parts of the city.

Impact of microclimate on residents’ health

The ecology of temperature is directly linked to public health. Streets devoid of shade and greenery become high-risk spaces during heat waves, especially for older adults, children, and people with cardiovascular diseases. High nighttime temperatures hinder bodily regeneration, leading to chronic fatigue and reduced immunity.

Studies show that microclimatic differences within a single city can affect hospitalization rates and mortality during periods of extreme heat. This means that the way streets and public spaces are designed has a real impact on the life and health of residents.

The role of greenery in temperature regulation

Vegetation is one of the most effective tools for regulating microclimate. Trees lower temperatures through shade and water evaporation, while green surfaces absorb significantly less heat than asphalt or concrete. Even single street trees can reduce perceived temperature by several degrees.

In practice, organizations that combine ecological knowledge with real action in urban space are playing an increasingly important role. Examples include initiatives implemented by the One More Tree Foundation, showing how conscious tree planting and urban greening can realistically reduce temperatures and improve street microclimates.

What matters is not only the presence of greenery, but also its distribution. Continuous rows of trees, green squares, and uninterrupted biologically active surfaces support air circulation and limit local overheating of space.

Urban materials and the thermal balance

Materials used in cities have a huge impact on the thermal balance of streets. Dark surfaces absorb more solar radiation, while light and porous surfaces reflect part of the energy or allow water infiltration. Cooling pavements and materials with high albedo are increasingly being tested to limit surface heating.

Changing materials alone will not solve the problem, but combined with greenery and water it can significantly improve thermal conditions in the city.

Microclimate and urban biodiversity

Temperature influences which species are able to function in a given part of the city. Overheated streets become ecological barriers that restrict animal movement and fragment habitats. Cooler, green corridors serve as refuges, enabling survival under extreme conditions.

Microclimatic diversity supports biological diversity, provided that the city shapes it consciously rather than striving for a uniform, heavily sealed space.

How to plan heat-resilient streets

Climate-resilient planning assumes designing streets as elements of an ecosystem rather than merely transport corridors. This includes planting trees along pedestrian routes, reducing the width of asphalt surfaces, using green bus stops, and creating shaded areas.

Long-term thinking is also crucial. Trees need time to achieve their full cooling function, which is why decisions made today will matter for decades to come.

Ecology of temperature as an element of a sustainable city

The ecology of temperature combines climatic, health, and environmental issues into one coherent field of action. Cities that can manage street microclimates become more resilient to climate change and more friendly to residents and nature.

Adapting cities to rising temperatures requires cooperation between local governments, businesses, and social organizations. This approach is consistently promoted by the One More Tree Foundation, which implements environmental and educational projects supporting urban resilience to climate change and improving residents’ quality of life.

“If it’s so cold, where is climate change?” Why frost does not contradict global warming

bartoszbuczkowski — Tue, 03 Feb 2026 09:25:54 +0000

Why frost and a freezing Baltic Sea do not contradict global warming

Every winter, when strong frosts, heavy snowfall or reports of the Baltic Sea freezing appear in Poland, the same question returns to public debate: if it is so cold, where is climate change? For many people, low temperatures seem like intuitive proof that global warming is exaggerated or does not exist at all. This is an understandable reaction, because in everyday life we rely on our own experiences and weather observations.

The problem is that this way of thinking greatly simplifies a very complex phenomenon. Climate change does not mean that everywhere and at all times it will simply become warmer. It primarily means a disruption of the climate balance we were accustomed to, and one of its most noticeable effects is increased weather variability. Cold winters, sudden frost waves or episodes of intense snowfall not only do not contradict climate change, but under certain conditions may actually be one of its consequences.

Weather and climate – a difference that changes everything

One of the key sources of misunderstanding is confusing weather with climate. Weather is the short-term state of the atmosphere at a given place and time, including temperature, precipitation, wind and cloud cover. Climate, on the other hand, describes average weather conditions observed over long periods, usually measured in decades.

This means that a single frosty winter or a few exceptionally cold weeks cannot undermine long-term climate trends. Just as one hot day is not proof of global warming, one very cold season does not disprove the fact that the Earth’s average temperature is rising. Climate is assessed on the basis of long-term data, not short-term deviations.

Why climate change does not mean “constant warmth”

In everyday understanding, global warming is often interpreted as a simple increase in temperature everywhere and at all times. In reality, climate change operates in a much more complex way. The warming of the planet affects atmospheric circulation, ocean currents and pressure systems that regulate the movement of air masses.

One of the key mechanisms is the jet stream, a strong band of winds high in the atmosphere that separates cold polar air masses from warmer southern air. As the Arctic warms, the temperature difference between the north and the south decreases, which can weaken and destabilise the jet stream. Under such conditions, cold air masses can more easily move southwards, causing sudden and intense cold spells in Europe, including Poland.

A freezing Baltic Sea – rarer than in the past

The freezing of the Baltic Sea is often cited as an argument against global warming. However, this phenomenon needs to be viewed in a broader historical context. Several decades ago, the Baltic Sea froze much more frequently and over a much larger area than it does today. In recent decades, a clear decline has been observed in both the frequency and the extent of ice cover.

The fact that the sea freezes in a given year does not mean that climate trends have reversed. It is a single weather event that fits into a pattern of increasing atmospheric instability. From a climate perspective, what matters is that such events are now the exception rather than the norm, and that the average duration and extent of Baltic ice cover are significantly smaller than in the second half of the twentieth century.

Why personal experience can be misleading

People naturally trust what they see and feel directly. Frost, snow and low temperatures are tangible and easy to remember, which makes them seem more convincing than abstract graphs or statistics. Our brains respond more strongly to vivid individual experiences than to long-term trends.

This is why short-term weather events are often used as arguments against climate change. Science, however, is based on the analysis of vast datasets collected worldwide over many decades. These data clearly show that despite local cold spells, the global warming trend is unmistakable.

What the data say, not emotions

Measurements conducted since the mid-nineteenth century show that the Earth’s average surface temperature has already increased by about 1.1–1.2°C compared to the pre-industrial period. Although this figure may seem small, on a global scale it represents an enormous increase in the amount of energy stored in the atmosphere and oceans. Eight of the ten warmest years on record have occurred in the last decade, despite the presence of local cold periods.

In Europe, the rate of warming is even higher than the global average. The continent’s average temperature has already increased by about 2°C, and in Poland the average annual temperature is now approximately 1.5–2°C higher than in the mid-twentieth century. At the same time, the number of weather anomalies, both warm and cold, is increasing, confirming the growing instability of the climate system.

Oceans play a crucial role, absorbing more than 90 percent of the excess heat associated with global warming. Since the 1970s, the temperature of the upper layers of the oceans has been steadily rising, influencing ocean currents and atmospheric circulation. It is precisely these oceanic changes that allow local cooling events to occur alongside a global rise in temperature.

Why this matters for the fuure

These data have direct implications for the future, including in Poland. As average temperatures rise, the risk of extreme weather events increases. Climate projections indicate that by the middle of the twenty-first century, the number of heatwave days in Central Europe could double, while the risk of sudden and severe cold spells will remain.

This means higher costs for both the economy and society. Energy systems must cope with increasingly large fluctuations in demand, infrastructure designed for a stable climate becomes less resilient, and agriculture faces unpredictable growing seasons. Shorter periods of snow cover, more frequent thaws and sudden temperature drops increase the risk of losses in both natural ecosystems and economic activities.

Understanding that a cold winter in Poland does not contradict global warming allows us to move beyond emotional reactions and focus on long-term thinking. Climate change is not simply about whether a particular season is warm or cold, but about the growing instability of a system we once considered predictable. The sooner we incorporate these data into planning and decision-making, the better prepared we will be for a future in which weather stability can no longer be taken for granted.